What helps people who have differences become less prejudiced and more productive and respectful of each other? 

Under what conditions do sports and games reduce prejudice?

Approaches for answering these questions can be compared by using groundbreaking research published in 1954 by Gordon Allport that laid the foundation for intergroup contact theory (ICT).  Over 500 studies of ICT conducted since the publication of The Nature of Prejudice shine light on the causes of prejudice and the conditions that overcome prejudice.  

A comprehensive review of ICT reached the conclusion that ethnic prejudice — antipathy toward a group or individual based upon a faulty and inflexible generalization — diminishes when diverse people get together for an activity that meets four conditions:

  • People in the activity have equal status.
  • People from different groups are pursuing similar goals.
  • People cooperate in the activity to achieve their goals.
  • People from both groups feel support from their community for the activity they do together.

These four conditions for overcoming prejudice can be met by traditional sports and games that keep score on a win-lose basis and by non-traditional sports and games that keep scores on a win-win-or-lose-lose basis.  By comparing two versions of one sport, the differences and similarities come to light.

For example, compare two versions of volleyball: traditional volleyball and EnTeam Volleyball.  Like traditional volleyball with two teams volleying a ball across a net, EnTeam Volleyball has two teams playing on a court.  Seven elements separate traditional volleyball from EnTeam Volleyball:

First, the objectives are different.  In traditional volleyball, the objective is to send the ball to the ground on the other side of the net so players on the other side of the net cannot return it.  The teams are on opposite sides of the net working against each other.  The challenge is for one side to win by outperforming the other side.  

The objective for EnTeam Volleyball is to hit the ball so players on the other side of the net can return it.  Players from both teams are divided evenly and positioned on both sides of the net.  After the ball is served over the net in EnTeam Volleyball, all the players on the receiving side must hit the ball at least once, but not twice in a row, and then after the ball is hit over the net to the other side, both teams score one point.  Both teams own that point because they worked together to score it.  All of the players strive to hit a ball across a net as many times as possible in three minutes. The challenge is for players from different teams to work together against the clock. Both teams lose or both teams win depending on whether they can increase their score each time they play in a series of three-minute games.

Second, the scoreboards are different.  In traditional volleyball the numbers on the scoreboard count goals scored separately. After a game, there are two scores: one score for each team.  The team with the greater scores wins.  

In EnTeam Volleyball, the numbers on the scoreboard are combined because the teams are working collaboratively to score points. After one game, both teams have the same score because they worked together for three minutes.  Only by playing a series of games, can the teams compare their joint scores and determine if they are improving in their combined performance.

Third, a fair game is different.  In traditional volleyball, the game is not fair unless players on both teams are reasonably close in ability or skill level.  If one team is athletically superior to the other the game is unfair because the score measures whose performance is best.  

In EnTeam Volleyball, players on different teams can be extremely different in physical development or capacity and the contest can still be meaningful because the score measures whether their combined scores improve each time they play together.  The players on both teams are “enteaming” because they are trying to help each other improve their combined performance. 

Fourth, the number of games needed to determine a winner is different.  In traditional volleyball, one game is sufficient to determine which side is the winner and which side is the loser because winning is based on which side has the better score.

In EnTeam Volleyball, teams must play a series of games to determine whether both sides are winning or both sides are losing because winning is based on whether scores are improving continuously.  Only if the teams play multiple times can they see if the score is continuing to improve.  The more they play together, the more challenging the sport becomes.  Between games, players from both teams take time to talk together and plan how they can improve their combined performance.  By sharing ideas and trying new approaches, players discover more about each other and about themselves.  The more they play together, the stronger the players become at scoring points together.

Fifth, the communication between teams is different.  In traditional volleyball, the primary form of communication is deception (such as a bluff or headfake) that misleads the other side.  Players and coaches withhold information about their strategies and plans.  If one team finds a weakness in the other team, they use that information to exploit the weakness.  Therefore, players must hide their weaknesses and pretend to be stronger than they are.  If one team can discourage the other team, winning becomes easier.  Players encourage teammates and may tease or taunt the players on the other team to demoralize them.

In EnTeam Volleyball, players on both sides benefit by candid, accurate, comprehensive information because reliable facts about each other and their performance can help them increase their combined scores.  If one team or player has a weakness, all the players use that information to plan how they can offset the weaknesses because everyone is trying to improve their combined performance.  Both teams benefit from encouraging each other.  Between games, the players from both teams take time to think together about how they can improve their strategies for working together.  

Sixth, the sources of assistance are different.  In traditional volleyball, helping or sharing information with one side hurts the other side.  For example, in traditional volleyball a coach from one team would not be expected to help the other team improve their strategy or their techniques.  

In EnTeam Volleyball, players and coaches are united in collaboration because whatever helps one side improve will increase both sides’ chances for success.  By sharing ideas for increasing their combined performance, players and coaches from both teams benefit.

Seventh, winning is different.  In traditional volleyball, only one side wins. There must be a loser if there is a winner (or if the score is a tie, neither wins).  Traditional volleyball is a zero-sum sport because one side can win only if the other side loses.  In a tournament with multiple teams, the winner is determined through an elimination process that creates a hierarchy of teams: one team is determined to be the winner, and the other teams are ranked in descending order.

In EnTeam Volleyball, both sides win or both lose depending on whether they can improve performance together in a series of games.  EnTeam Volleyball is a non-zero-sum sport because both teams can win or both teams can lose.  In a tournament with multiple teams, all of the teams lose if they cannot improve their combined scores in a series of rounds of play.  All of the teams win if they can increase their combined scores increase and also exceed the scores from previous tournaments.  The most valuable teams are those who bring out the best in other teams.  All of the teams become stronger if they succeed in improving their combined performance continuously.

Despite these seven differences between traditional volleyball and EnTeam Volleyball, the unifying fact is that both versions of the sport benefit players.  Traditional volleyball builds the skills needed for one team to outperform an opposing team.  EnTeam Volleyball builds the skills needed for teams to work together in collaboration with each other.  Win-lose skills are essential for anyone running for election or making a choice between alternative options.  Win-win skills are essential for positive-interdependent relationships such as parent-child, student-teacher, buyer-seller, physician-patient, etc.

The relevance of sports for overcoming prejudice is that both traditional sports and EnTeam Sports can be used to nurture understanding and respect among diverse players:  If players from diverse ethnic groups are on the same team, then traditional volleyball meets the conditions of ICT:

  • Players have equal status on their team.
  • Players on the team have the same goal: score points.
  • Players cooperate to score goals.
  • Players feel support from their teammates, coaches, and fans.

If the players on one team are from one ethnic group and the players on the other team are from a different ethnic group, then EnTeam Volleyball provides the conditions needed to combat prejudice:

  • Players on both teams have equal status.
  • Players on both teams have the same goal: score points.
  • Players on both teams cooperate to score goals.
  • Players feel support from both sides.

EnTeam Volleyball is one of many EnTeam Sports and Games that players from diverse backgrounds can play to combat prejudice.  EnTeam Sports and Games are available on the EnTeam Game Portal at no cost to you.  Please let us know your experience when you play Enteam Sports and Games.  You can send feedback to Info@enteam.org  

Thanks to everyone who gives feedback.